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1. Social Psychology
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Topic: Prejudice Theories
Psychologists have long argued the reasons why people discriminate against others. This activity will allow you to contemplate these reasons in more depth.
Please answer the following questions.
What are the differences and similarities between cognitive and motivational theories of prejudice?
In your view, do certain types of personalities tend to use either cognitive or motivational theories more readily? Draw from your knowledge of several areas of psychology to justify your answer.
Given what you know of theories of prejudice, do you believe that prejudice and discrimination are universal phenomena? Why or why not?
2. Social Psychology
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Elizabeth Noble posted Jun 18, 2024 10:14 AM
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Prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination are all very important issues and topics that play a factor in people’s lives in different ways. “The roots of prejudice can be found in the cognitive and emotional processes that social psychologists have measured with reference to a variety of different social groups” (Branscombe & Baron, 2017, p. 186). Some people may face being a target for multiple reasons, from their race, gender, sexuality, and other aspects of their lives. Others may only have a few, but all three have serious and important aspects in the lives of many and need to be looked at. When looking at cognitive and motivational theories of prejudices, there are differences that can be noticed when analyzing the matter. “Stereotypes are considered the cognitive component of attitudes towards a social group-specifically, beliefs about what a particular group is like. Prejudice is considered the affective component, or the feelings we have about a particular group” (Branscombe & Baron, 2017, p. 191). Notice that while motivational and cognitive focus on two different parts, they overlap. However, that will be focused on in a bit since the focus is on the differences. In the aspect of cognitive theories, the focus is on stereotypes. “Stereotypes act as theories, guiding what we attend to, and exerting strong effects on how we process social information (Branscombe & Baron, 2017, p. 201, cited by Yzerbyt, Rocher, & Schradron, 1997). From the cognitive aspect, we put people in certain groups, leading to how we look and even interact with the individuals. “Categorizing people according to their group membership can be efficient for human beings who may invest little cognitive effort in many situations” (Branscombe & Baron, 2017, p. 200). To save time and energy for other things, people put others in categories to determine how to respond or approach them, but often, in doing this, we are inaccurate and can produce a wrong or incomplete picture of an individual. With all this in mind, the motivational aspect is brought in from those stereotypes, as pointed out before, and will be done again. “Stereotypes can serve important motivational purposes; in addition to providing us with a sense that we can predict others’ behavior, they can help us feel positive about our own group identity in comparison to other social groups” (Branscombe & Baron, 2017, p. 200). From the motivational theory, the traits placed on one of the other social groups can leave the person feeling positive and with higher self-esteem about the group they belong with. As seen later in the chapter, this can bring problems, especially when ignoring negative factors of one own group; however, currently, we can see that the stereotypes made in the cognitive phase led to helping in the motivational aspect. Building off that, we can look at the similarities between motivational and cognitive theories. As can be seen from their differences, the two overlap and connect to one another. With both theories, individuals can better understand the reason for prejudice occurring from both the cognitive and motivational sides of the line. Even though they both serve different purposes regarding prejudice, there is a connection as the cognitive aspect of the schemes can lead to the motivational part. Another similarity is that these two theories influence and impact attitudes and behaviors toward others. These are only a few similarities that can be seen between the theories.
I believe certain personality types turn more to one of the two theories than the other. Depending on the person, personality, and thought process, their choices when looking at a theory will reflect that based on how they handle certain issues. In prejudice, the personality that tends to be seen more in these circumstances is the authoritarian personality. “Authoritarian personalities have a number of characteristics. They are very concerned with status and upholding convention; they are very conformist; they tend to be very obsequious towards people they see as having a higher status than them but treat those ‘below’ them with contempt and they are suspicious of and hostile towards those they see as different” (“The Authoritarian Personality”, n.d., para 1). With what we learned about conformity, we can see how they conform to the people around them, fit their beliefs, or adapt to theirs. This leads to others with similar personalities and views possibly expanding, allowing for prejudiced views to grow, especially once people teach it to their children, peers, and others within their social circle. Look at hate groups and how they can bring people into their inner circle by giving them a safe space to let their prejudices and dislike for certain people grow among people who feel the same as them.
Prejudice and discrimination are universal phenomena; however, their extent and form may vary depending on the area. Social learning is a huge factor in the matter of prejudice and discrimination. “According to the social learning view, children acquire negative attitudes toward various social groups because they hear such views expressed by significant others, and because they are directly rewarded (with love, praise, and approval) for adopting these views” (Branscombe & Baron, 2017, p. 215). Children tend to learn from the adults in their lives, and picking up on their prejudice, then seeing the positives of what may come from them adapting to it, such as love or approval as they seek, will allow it to stick. This can lead to cycles continuing since they will do the same if they have children, most likely. However, globally, people have different cultures, views, and beliefs, allowing for different prejudices, discrimination, and stereotypes to arise in other parts of the world. Prejudices we may have here in America may not be the same in England, for example. So, while prejudice and discrimination are universal, the extent and ways can be different based on the part of the world. However, while they may differ, everyone has some biases and views toward people, and how we handle and conduct ourselves is the most important part. Question for the class: We saw some ways to reduce prejudice; do you feel schools can use some of these options, such as the contact hypothesis, to break the prejudice children may have towards others they picked up from their home life and adults? If so, what ways do you think could reduce prejudice?
References
Branscombe, N. R., & Baron, R. A. (2017). Social Psychology (P. Kapur, Ed.; 14th ed.). Pearson Education, Inc
3. Social Psychology
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Jennifer Cerer posted Jun 17, 2024 2:44 PM
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Academics who research prejudice generally conclude that there are two strains of theory: cognitive and motivational. Cognitive theories of prejudice argue that “people do indeed have implicit racial attitudes that are automatically elicited, and that such automatically elicited attitudes can, in turn, influence important forms of behavior such as decisions concerning others and the degree of friendliness that is expressed in interactions with them” (Branscombe & Baron, 2017, p. 237). Individual’s subconscious, automatic actions can be learned over time. The social learning view is defined as being when “children acquire negative attitudes toward various social groups because they hear such views” being expressed by those they value and listen to (Branscombe & Baron, 2017, p. 240). These prejudice beliefs and statements are going to then solidify over time.
However, the social identity theory can be used to promote a prejudice theory that is more motivational. Motivational prejudice comes from a belief that those who are prejudice are benefitted by it. “It has been argued that low-status groups should discriminate more than high-status groups because the former have greater identity needs than the latter,” but it is continuously reported that “contrary to what one might expect, high-status groups discriminate more than low-status groups” (Guimond & Dambrun, 2002, p. 901). The prejudice against those with less is what keeps those with plenty in control of the group. This is applicable on a world scale. Whether it concerns social class, race, gender, etc., people are always going to be exposed to those who believe that what they are makes them superior. Do you feel that there are places in the world in which prejudice does not exist?
References
Branscombe, N. R., & Baron, R. A. (2017). Social Psychology (P. Kapur, Ed.; 14th ed.). Pearson Education, Inc.
4. Social Psychology
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Topic: Tackling Hate Crimes
Hate crimes continue to occur in today’s society despite our perceptions that society has become more “politically correct.” Use this exercise to help deconstruct the reasons why hate crimes occur and to identify ways that we may reduce their future occurrence.
Use your knowledge of prejudice and discrimination to address the following items.
Identify a hate crime in the news. Provide a brief summary of the events that occurred.
Analyze the event using your knowledge of stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. (Be sure to cite outside sources and/or your textbook.) In your analysis, explain and apply the theory or theories that best explain the perpetrator’s actions.
What strategies could individuals or society use to decrease the incidence of these types of hate crimes in the future?
5. Social Psychology
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Jennifer Cerer posted Jun 17, 2024 2:45 PM
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Violence brought on by prejudice and discrimination can often produce a hate crime. In the Denver-metro area, there was recently a spike in numbers of hate crimes against those who are transgender. Usually, Denver is known for its wide acceptance of lifestyles and preferences, but this NBC 9 News update was quite shocking. They used the example of a recent hate crime that had happened earlier this year in which someone was physically assaulted because of their sexual orientation by two men in Aurora (Irizarry, 2024). This has not been the only reported hate crime this year, with the article insisting that there is currently a rise in such crimes in the Denver area.
“All prejudices are not the same — or at least they are not based on the same type of negative feelings” (Branscombe & Baron, 2017, p. 228). This news story was a good example to highlight that race is not the only motivator of a hate crime. This was clearly because of the individual’s sexual orientation. However, just because there is an explanation for it, does not make it right. There needs to be a way to reverse prejudice and discriminatory thoughts in people before they turn to violence. It is reported that “exposure to positive exemplars from social groups can decrease implicit prejudice toward those groups” (Columb & Plant, 2011, p. 499). The more familiarity with the group one is prejudice against, the less prejudice against the group they become. There should also be better education of tolerance to children and adolescents. What are some methods you would use?
References
Branscombe, N. R., & Baron, R. A. (2017). Social Psychology (P. Kapur, Ed.; 14th ed.). Pearson Education, Inc.
6. Social Psychology
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Kyle Linstroth posted Jun 18, 2024 12:54 AM
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Paul Bittner, a 42-year-old, white man was arrested in Washington after “allegedly targeting and attacking a Black sixth-grade student walking with classmates during a field trip” (Howard, 2024, para 1). Students from Whatcom Middle School were on a field trip, when Mr. Bittner joined the group of students. Mr. Bittner allegedly pushed the Black sixth grader, and before punching the child in the face asked the child, “Are you going to talk to a white man like that?” (Howard, 2024, para 5).
In modern society, people often conceal their prejudices from others and express their bigotry in private, and prejudice is often expressed in subtle forms of behavior (Branscombe & Baron, 2017). This is not an example of a subtle or disguised form of discrimination, often expressed in modern day racism. This was an example of “old-fashioned racism, encompassing blatant feelings of superiority” (Branscome & Baron, 2017, p. 211). Mr. Bittner seemed to target and have conscious intent “to discriminate against members of the target group” (Branscombe & Baron, 2017, p.191). The malice and conscious intent reflect Mr. Bittner’s deep-seated prejudice beliefs. Mr. Bittner’s prejudice was learned. This is in alignment with the social learning theory, where “children acquire negative attitudes towards various social groups because they hear such views expressed by significant others and because they are rewarded for adopting their views” (Branscombe & Baron, 2017, p. 215). Mr. Bittner’s feelings of superiority reflect the fact that his prejudiced beliefs were not only learned, but part of his social identity. “Prejudice is derived from our tendency to divide the world into ‘us’ and “them” and to view our own group more favorably than various groups” (Branscombe & Baron, 2017, p.220).
One such way to combat racism, is through social influence. Racism is a learned social phenomenon, so it stands to reason, through social influence, it can be unlearned. Racial attitudes develop from early experiences, as well as from the current members of one’s group. “If people can be induced to believe that their prejudiced views are “out of line” with those of most other people, especially those they respect, they may well change those views toward a less prejudiced position” (Branscombe & Baron, 2017, p. 219). In addition, collective guilt can be used as a means of reducing racism. It has been found that ‘reflecting on racial inequality can be an effective means of lowering racism” (Branscombe & Baron, 2017, p.217). Lastly, increasing contact and exposure between different groups, can help reduce racism. The contact hypothesis suggests, increased contact between groups, “can lead to a growing recognition of similarities between them, which can change the categorizations that people employ” (Branscombe & Baron, 2017, p.215). Increased contact between groups, can break down the us-vs.-them effect, and “can reduce prejudice by reducing anxiety about future encounters with outgroup members” (Branscombe & Baron, 2017, p.216).
My question for the class, why is Black Entertainment Television (BET) not considered racist? When White Entertainment Television, if there was one, would be?
References
Branscombe, N. R., & Baron, R. A. (2017). Social Psychology (P. Kapur, Ed.; 14th ed.).
Pearson Education, Inc.
7. Graduate Transform/writing
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Topic: Domestic Religious Extremism and Religious Extremist Groups
You are in the midst of writing a Literature Review, a genre that you likely have not been assigned before. This can be a daunting task, but it is an important one because not only does it develop many of the skills that are key for your graduate school success, it is also a genre in which you will have to write again once you get to the Capstone course. Practicing this now, without all the concerns that come with the Capstone, is important for your future success.
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Think about your experience with the Literature Review thus far, as well as the end-product that you aim to create. What advantages does this process have for you as a graduate student and as a (future) professional? Which of your skills do you feel this is developing, even if the progress is hard-won?
8. Graduate Transformation/Writing
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Carly Spallone posted Jun 18, 2024 3:07 PM
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What I admire about this class is that the final project has been in working accumulation since the beginning weeks, rather than trying to force an extensive project in the last busy weeks. So, thank you for this. As a refresher, my research is based around my master’s graduate studies of criminology. I am still narrowing down if I want to have my emphasis on either human behavior or criminology, so for this route I decided to do more research on the human behavior aspect. My research question is “do biological and environmental conditions play a role in breeding violent offenders?”. I have made progress in the accumulation of all of my sources, such as findings in the biological field around prenatal alcohol exposure and how it generates cognitive impairments around comprehension and social judgment which can lead to psychopathy and violent tendencies. These neural disconnections occur in areas such as the amygdala, insula, and the superior temporal gyrus, and angular gyrus/temporoparietal junction. Looking to the environmental side, attachment theories have been primary to my research as how poor relationships between child and parent, both in abuse and neglect, muttles the sense of self versus object that can breed violent, physically uncomfortable, and inappropriately-timed behavior as the child advances in age. Now working toward the end product, I am moving into the specifics of the formatting stage. The APA manual is guiding me, specifically within chapter 15. Yet, my question arises on the table on page 182, as it has a chart for “An introduction to the texts being reviewed, the authors’ main claims relevant to your review question, evaluation of the authors’ claims, including any counter-evidence, final section setting out the conclusion of your argument, and summary of your evaluation of literature reviewed to assess the texts’ combined contribution to answering your review question.” (APA,2020, p,181) Is this the “body” of the paper that gets done 7 separate times for each source? If not, what goes in the body paragraphs? A literature review is defined as a “reviewer’s constructively critical account, developing an argument designed to convince a particular audience about what the published – and possibly also unpublished – literature (theory, research, practice or policy) indicates is and is not known about one or more questions that the reviewer has framed.” (APA,2020, p,179). The process of conducting a literature review aids me as I further my graduate career as I work toward my capstone and dissertation. Literature reviews are a step further than just summarizing what already exists but taking that one step further in using research to enforce what is already known. This forces me to form a strong argument around my research on what is important, irrelevant, and what existing gaps there are in my field of research. This then increases my probability of conceiving my readers, being professors, colleagues, or any academic journals if I wish to publish. The interaction with other bodies of text is working on my developing skill of being more critical as a reader. Prior to this class, my research process consisted of picking the first or second source that popped up just for the sake that it had content that I needed. However, working the literature review and connecting to the critical analysis from week 5 made me realize I need to be more strict on what sources I choose to engage with, such as notions of organization, tone, theme, etc. There are so many sources out there, and settling on the first one makes me a lazy researcher who settles, rather than digging deeper to find something far better. Referencing these strong sources increases my credibility as a researcher, hence making my argument likely to be more convincing to my audience.
References:
American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. (7th ed.). American Psychological Association.